If you’ve ever wondered about the ins and outs of industrial property classifications, you’re not alone! When it comes to commercial properties, B2 industrial use is a crucial category that covers activities related to manufacturing and production. But what exactly does this mean for your property? Whether you’re looking to invest in, buy, or even convert a property to B2 use, understanding this classification can save you time, money, and confusion. In this guide, we’ll take you through what B2 use really involves, why it’s important, and how it can shape your next property decision.
What is a B2 Use Class?
UK Use Class System
To understand B2 industrial use, it’s helpful to first explore the UK’s Use Class System. Ever wondered why certain buildings are designated for shops, schools, medical or health services practices, or even cafés serving your morning coffee? The answer lies in the Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order, which categorises land and buildings based on their intended purposes. This system helps ensure spaces are used effectively, supporting both the needs of businesses and the community. It plays a key role in organising land use, fostering well-planned environments that serve a variety of operational or administrative functions.
For example:
- Class E commercial business includes a variety of uses, such as retail shops, office spaces, and health or medical services.
- Class F1 is focused on educational purposes, covering establishments like schools, libraries, and museums.
- Class Q permits the transformation of agricultural buildings into residential properties, which supports rural development and repurposes existing structures for housing needs.
By grouping properties under specific classes, the system ensures our towns and cities maintain a balanced mix of uses—so there’s room for education, business growth industrial parks development, and local services to thrive while keeping neighbourhoods practical and vibrant. Curious to learn more about how the use class system works? Check out our guide: A Complete Guide to the Planning Use Class Order.
What is B2 Industrial Use?
B2 industrial use refers to general industrial process activities under the UK’s planning Use Class system. This classification applies to industrial processes that go beyond light industrial work, often involving operations that generate noise, dust, fumes, or vibrations. These activities may include both operational or administrative functions, which support the industrial process, and other processes integral to manufacturing or production. As such, B2 use class properties are typically located away from residential areas to avoid disrupting nearby communities due to industrial processes.
Common examples of B2 industrial use include manufacturing plants, heavy machinery workshops, food industrial processing, chemical treatment facilities, chemical treatment, and repair operations involving large-scale equipment. Unlike lighter industrial process activities, B2 uses require careful consideration of environmental and operational impacts, which is why they are usually situated in designated industrial zones.
Understanding B2 classifications is essential for businesses and developers to pinpoint appropriate locations for their operations, ensuring they meet local planning guidelines. This knowledge helps streamline the selection industrial process while maintaining compliance with the specific regulations governing industrial activities, ultimately promoting smoother project development.
Common Uses of B2 Industrial Properties
B2 industrial properties are designed for general industrial processes, making them ideal for activities that require significant space and often produce noise, dust, or emissions. Here are some typical examples of businesses and operations that fall under class B2 general industrial using classification:
- Manufacturing Plants: Facilities involved in large-scale production of goods, including automotive parts, machinery, and consumer products.
- Food Processing Units: Businesses that industrial process raw food materials into packaged goods, such as bakeries, dairies, or meat processing plants.
- Heavy Equipment Workshops: Spaces for maintaining, repairing, or building large machinery, vehicles, or tools.
- Recycling and Waste Facilities: Operations focused on sorting, industrial processing, and managing waste materials or recyclables.
- Textile and Printing Factories: Locations where fabrics, garments, or printed materials are produced and industrially processed.
- Mechanical and Engineering Workshops: industrial processes specialising in mechanical repairs, fabrication, or engineering services for industrial sectors.
These typical applications demonstrate the flexibility of B2 properties, making them vital for industrial processes that need substantial infrastructure, specialised equipment, and operational or administrative functions, along with physical distance from residential areas. This makes them ideal for manufacturing, distribution, and other heavy industrial activities that require space to operate effectively while minimizing disruptions to nearby communities.
Key Features of B2 Commercial Properties
Size and Space: B2 properties generally offer more floor space compared to other commercial classifications. This makes them ideal for businesses needing large areas to accommodate industrial processes, heavy machinery, production lines, or storage for industrial goods.
Rental Costs: Rental rates for B2 spaces can differ significantly based on their location, but they are generally more affordable compared to premium office or retail properties due to their industrial characteristics. However, businesses should be mindful of additional operational costs, such other services such as utilities and maintenance, especially in facilities that require heavy-duty infrastructure and equipment.
Functionality: B2 spaces are not just about space; they come with the necessary infrastructure to support the specific needs of industrial processes. This can include things like enhanced power supply, ventilation systems, and loading docks suitable for large vehicles or equipment.
Managing Hazardous Waste and Chemical Treatment in B2 Use Class Properties
In B2 Use Class properties, hazardous waste becomes a major consideration due to the industrial processes that frequently generate harmful byproducts. These byproducts may include chemicals, pollutants, and other materials that require specialised handling to prevent environmental damage and safeguard public health. Effective waste management is essential for businesses operating within the B2 sector. Chemical treatment is a key component of this process, providing a method for neutralizing or properly managing hazardous substances to comply with environmental regulations and ensure safe disposal.
Hazardous waste can result from a range of industrial activities within B2 properties, including manufacturing processes that produce chemical waste, solvents, or other toxic substances. Chemical treatment is the process that helps treat and dispose of hazardous waste safely, using methods like neutralization, filtration, or incineration to reduce harmful effects. This treatment not only protects the environment but also ensures that the waste is managed according to local laws and health standards.
Given the complexities involved, it is essential for businesses in B2 sectors to develop comprehensive plans for hazardous waste disposal. These plans should include effective chemical treatment processes, which are designed to minimize the risks associated with hazardous waste. By implementing these chemical treatment methods, companies can operate within the safety framework established by environmental regulations, ensuring that hazardous waste is safely handled, treated, and disposed of, thus preventing potential harm to surrounding areas.
Proper management of hazardous waste and the use of chemical treatment processes are not just regulatory requirements—they are key to building and maintaining safe and sustainable operations within B2 use properties. Therefore, understanding the specific needs of hazardous waste management and chemical treatment is essential for businesses seeking to avoid compliance issues and environmental impacts.
Key Differences Between B2 and Other Use Classes (B1, B8)
When considering the right use class for your business, it’s important to understand the key differences between B2 (General Industrial), B1 (Light Industrial/Offices), and B8 (Storage and Distribution). Each of these use classes has its own characteristics, suited to different types of business operations, and knowing how they differ can help you make an informed decision.
B8: Storage and Distribution
B8 properties are used for storing and distributing goods, often involving warehouses and logistics centres.
Key Characteristics:
- Type of Activity: While B8 also requires large spaces, the activities usually involve the storage and distribution of goods, rather than manufacturing. This includes things like sorting, packaging, and logistics management.
- Impact on Surrounding Area: Although B8 properties can generate traffic and require significant infrastructure, they are typically less disruptive than B2 properties in terms of noise and pollution.
- Typical Businesses: Distribution centres, warehouses, and storage facilities.
- Regulatory Considerations: While they still require suitable planning permission, the environmental impact is often less than that of class b2 general industrial.
For more information on B8 use, check out our full article here [insert link].
B1: Light Industrial and Offices
B1 properties cater to light industrial uses and office spaces, suitable for businesses that don’t require large, heavy machinery or processes.
Key Characteristics:
- Type of Activity: Businesses in this class can range from light manufacturing to office-based businesses and research operations. The focus is on activities that don’t generate significant noise or pollution.
- Impact on Surrounding Area: Generally, B1 properties are quieter and more compatible with mixed-use areas, making them more suitable for urban or residential area settings.
- Typical Businesses: Offices, small-scale workshops, design firms, and research-based businesses.
- Regulatory Considerations: Planning permissions are generally easier to secure than for B2 properties, due to the lighter nature of the operations.
Key Differences
- B2 vs. B8: B2 is focused on manufacturing and heavy industrial process activities, which tend to have a greater impact on the surrounding area (such as noise, pollution, and traffic). In contrast, B8 is geared towards storage and distribution, with less environmental disruption but often requiring large spaces and proximity to transport links.
- B2 vs. B1: B2 involves much heavier operations, such as factories, industrial process and production lines, which can generate significant environmental impacts. B1, on the other hand, is for lighter industrial uses or office spaces that are typically quieter and more compatible with urban areas.
Recognising the differences between property classes helps you identify the most appropriate type for your business, whether you require the heavy machinery space of a manufacturing plant, operational or administrative functions for a commercial business and service call, or the peaceful environment of an office. This distinction ensures your business operates within the right framework, meeting both operational and zoning requirements.
Converting a Property to B2 Use: Understanding the Change of Use Process
Changing the use of a building can seem a bit tricky, but it’s all about understanding the rules and the steps involved. If you’re thinking about converting a property to class b2 general industrial use, it’s important to get to grips with the process from the start. Change of use projects come with their own set of challenges and regulations, but with the right approach, you can navigate them smoothly. If you’re unsure where to begin, Navigating Change of Use Projects in the UK: A Comprehensive Guide is a great resource to help you understand the ins and outs.
Can You Change the Use Without Planning Permission?
When planning a change of use for a property, the first step is to determine whether you require planning permission. In some instances, you may be able to proceed with the change under Permitted Development Rights (PDR), which allow certain alterations without needing a full planning application. However, not all changes or properties are eligible for PDR. Restrictions may apply depending on factors like the location, the type of building, or the scope of the proposed changes. It’s essential to carefully check whether your property and intended alterations are covered under these various permitted development rights.
For example, properties in certain areas or with specific features might still require planning permission even if PDR seems applicable. This is why it’s essential to double-check whether your particular change of use falls under the scope of PDR or not. If you’re unsure, our guide on “Can I Change the Use of My Property Without Planning Permission?” will provide clarity on when PDR can be used and the criteria to check.
Conservation Areas and Article 4 Directions: What You Need to Know
It’s also important to remember that there are may certain limitations when your property is located in sensitive areas, such as conservation areas, or if an Article 4 Direction is in place. These special restrictions can prevent the use of PDR, meaning you’ll need to apply for planning permission even for changes that would otherwise be allowed under PDR.
Conservation areas are designated to preserve the character of a historic or special used residential area without detriment it, so any changes of use or alterations that could affect residential area without detriment its appearance or character may be subject to stricter regulations. Similarly, an Article 4 Direction can be issued to remove certain PDRs in a specific residential area without detriment it, requiring you to apply for planning permission for even minor changes.
For instance, projects involving B2 use in such areas may necessitate detailed assessments to address specific concerns. These could include noise impact assessments, especially if operations involve motorised vehicles or heavy machinery, or traffic management plans to evaluate potential disruptions to local infrastructure.
If your property is in one of these areas, it’s vital to check whether these restrictions apply to your change of use proposal. Our article on “What is an Article 4 Direction, and How Could It Affect Your Change of Use Project?” will explain these concepts in greater detail, helping you navigate the complexities of working in such areas.
By considering all of these factors—whether Permitted Development Rights apply, the location of your property, and any specific regulations like conservation areas or Article 4 Directions—you can get a clear understanding of the permissions you’ll need for your project.
When You Need to Submit a Planning Application
If your project falls outside the scope of permitted development or is in an area with restrictions, you’ll need to submit a planning application. This can be a big step, but it’s all part of making sure your project aligns with local regulations. The planning application process involves submitting detailed documents, including a description of the proposed use, any structural changes, and how the change will affect the surrounding area. It’s important to get it right to avoid any setbacks down the line.
Pre-Application Advice: A Smart Start
When it comes to changing the use of a property, starting with pre-application advice is one of the smartest decisions you can make. Think of pre-application advice as a way to test the waters. Instead of submitting your full application and waiting anxiously for the council’s decision (and possibly facing rejection or costly delays), you can get valuable feedback that helps you refine your approach from the start. This can save a lot of time and money in the long run, as it gives you the opportunity to make changes before things get official.
For example, if the local authority council has concerns about the change of use in terms of its impact on the health services in local area or compliance with zoning rules, you can adjust your plans accordingly. If you skip this step, you might miss out on critical feedback that could have made all the difference, leading to delays or even rejection of your application.
To get more insights on why seeking pre-application advice is so beneficial, check out Benefits of Seeking Pre-Application Advice for Change of Use Projects. This guide will walk you through all the ways this proactive step can help streamline your project and ensure you’re heading in the right direction.
Preparing the Right Documentation for Your Change of Use Application
When submitting a planning application for a change of use, ensuring your documentation is thorough and well-prepared is essential. Even the best ideas can run into trouble if they lack the proper paperwork, so getting everything right from the start is key. Among the most important parts of your application are the architectural drawings, which will be the foundation for your plans. Whether you’re changing the layout of a space or making structural alterations, these drawings need to be clear, accurate, and professional to support your application.
The architectural drawings should reflect the current structure of the building, the proposed changes, and how the building will function with those changes in place. These plans must meet the local council’s requirements and standards, ensuring that your proposed use aligns with any zoning or regulatory restrictions.
This is where hiring an architect becomes invaluable. An architect will not only ensure that your plans are visually and functionally sound, but also that they comply with all necessary legal requirements. They will guide you through specific regulations that apply to your project, whether you’re dealing with a conservation area, or there are restrictions such as Article 4 Directions in place. Their expertise reduces the risk of your application encountering issues or delays down the line. For more detailed guidance on how an architect can assist with preparing architectural drawings for change of use projects, check out our Guide on Why Hiring an Architect is Crucial for Your Planning Application.
Additionally, the right documentation goes beyond the drawings themselves. You may need to provide supplementary documents such as environmental reports to show landfill or hazardous waste solutions, transport assessments, or any other relevant documents that show you’ve considered every aspect of your project. A well-organised and complete application demonstrates to the council that you’ve thought through the details, improving the chances of success.
Challenges in Securing Planning Permission for B2 Use
Securing planning permission for B2 industrial use can come with its own set of hurdles, which businesses must navigate carefully. Here are some of the common challenges you may encounter:
- Environmental Concerns
B2 uses typically involve activities like manufacturing, processing, or assembly, which can create environmental impacts. Issues such as noise, air pollution, and waste management can raise concerns for local authorities and nearby residents. Planning authorities often require detailed assessments to ensure the activity won’t negatively affect the environment or the surrounding community. - Impact on Neighbouring Properties
The nature of B2 activities—such as heavy machinery use or production processes—may disrupt neighbouring properties. Local councils will look into the potential impact on nearby residential or commercial spaces, especially in mixed-use areas. The potential for noise pollution, heavy traffic, or even vibrations could influence the decision-making process. - Location and Availability of Suitable Sites
Finding the right location for class B2 use can be another challenge. Local authorities may have specific zones where industrial activity is permitted, and these areas are sometimes limited. You may find it difficult to locate an appropriate site within an area where class B2 uses are allowed. Furthermore, competition for general industrial space in certain locations can make it harder to secure a site that meets your business needs. - Compliance with Local Plans
Local authorities often have their own local authority development plans and policies that outline where industrial uses are permissible. If your proposed class b2 general industrial use doesn’t align with these plans, it can result in delays or even rejection. In these cases, you may need to provide additional justification for the need for the proposed use in that specific location. - Public Objections
Local residents or businesses may raise objections to your proposal, especially if it involves changes to an area’s character. These objections could stem from concerns over traffic, noise, or the perceived “unsightliness” of industrial activities in certain locations. Managing these objections, possibly by amending your plans, is crucial to moving forward with your application.
Navigating these challenges often requires careful planning, thorough documentation, and, in some cases, working with professionals like architects or environmental consultants to ensure your plans comply with local authority regulations. At Homz, we specialise in guiding you through the complexities of planning applications, providing expert advice on architectural drawings and planning processes to help make your project a success.
If you’re facing challenges with securing planning permission for a class B2 property or navigating the regulations, don’t hesitate to Contact Us. We’re here to help ensure your application meets all requirements and moves forward smoothly.
For more insights into the planning process for class b2 general industrial properties, take a look at our guide on Common Pitfalls to Avoid in Change of Use Applications, which provides additional advice on overcoming challenges like these.
Can You Convert a Property from B8 to B2? A Case Study on the Change of Use Process
Changing the use of a property from B8 (storage and distribution) to class B2+ (general industrial) can be a complex process, but it’s certainly possible with the right steps and considerations. Typically, this change requires a full planning application rather than being covered by Permitted Development Rights (PDR). In many cases, the council will want to assess how the new industrial activities will affect the surrounding area, especially regarding noise, traffic, and environmental impact. These factors can often pose challenges in securing approval.
To better illustrate the process, let’s take a look at a case study from our experience at Homz. We recently carried out a planning appraisal for a project involving a change of use from class B8 to class B2. The process involved carefully assessing the existing structure, the proposed activities, and the potential impact on neighbouring properties. After submitting the required application and documentation, including detailed architectural drawings and environmental assessments, the planning officers reviewed how the conversion would fit within the area’s zoning and regulatory guidelines.
This case study offers valuable insights into the complexities and steps involved in such a conversion. You can explore the full details of the case and the lessons learned in our case study below.
Case Study 04: Planning Appraisal for Change of Use From Storage (Class B8) To General Industrial (Class B2)
The client instructed Homz to provide feasibility on their property for a Change of Use From Storage (Class B8) To General Industrial (Class B2) in London Borough of Croydon. Our Senior Town Planner has conducted research within the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) to understand whether the local planning authority is applying any constraints on your property.
Planning approval will be required for this proposal via the submission of a full planning application for a material change of use as the site is currently designated within Class B8 which relates to storage and distribution and it will need to be allocated as a B2 use which is related to general industry.
Even if a planning application was not required for a material change of use, the proposed installation of extraction equipment would still require a full planning application as commercial and industrial premises do not benefit from any Permitted Development (PD) opportunities.
The site location is not associated with any restrictive planning constraints as per the local development plan. It is however designated as a “strategic industrial site” which will be beneficial to this proposal as this planning allocated seeks to promote growth and employment opportunities stating:
“Policy SP3: Employment SP3.1 The Council will encourage innovation and investment into the borough to support enterprise and increased employment for the benefit of all Croydon residents. The Council will apply a presumption in favour of employment-related development, provided it meets the standards of Policy SP3 and other applicable policies of the development plan.”
“Policy DM9: Expansion of industrial and warehousing premises in Strategic, Separated and Integrated Industrial Locations Within the Strategic, Separated and Integrated Industrial Locations identified in Table 5.2 of Policy SP3.2, the Council will encourage the redevelopment of low density industrial and warehousing premises with higher density industrial and warehousing premises.“
After the planning appraisal, our client sent us their brief, along with visual information and sketches of their proposal. Our architects meticulously examined this information and prepared architectural drawings according to the brief. Our Architects and Town Planners prepared the supporting documents Architectural Plans, and Planning Statements. Please see the plans of this project in our Portfolio. Our team has successfully submitted and managed the planning application with the council. Following the waiting period of the decision, Homz has scored another successful Approval for this planning application on behalf of our client.
| Likelihood of Success: | Provided that an appropriate application is lodged, this proposal should benefit from a reasonable – strong likelihood of success provided that an appropriate application is lodged to the Planning Authority. |
Why You Should Choose Homz for B2 Change of Use Projects
When it comes to navigating the complexities of class B2 (general industrial and commercial) change of use projects, Homz offers comprehensive expertise that ensures the smooth and successful transition of your property. Here’s why we’re the right choice for your project:
At Homz, we have a deep understanding of the intricate planning, legal, and architectural details involved in converting properties to class B2 industrial use. We help ensure your project meets all regulatory requirements, from zoning laws to environmental concerns.
Additionally, our expert team provides architectural support to ensure your drawings meet the necessary standards for both legal and visual accuracy, reducing the risk of issues during the application process.
Being well-versed in local authority regulations is crucial, especially when navigating complex factors like conservation area rules or Article 4 Directions. With pre-application advice, we help you understand these nuances and ensure that your application aligns with all relevant restrictions. Our expertise ensures that you’re well-prepared to move forward, avoiding potential setbacks and ensuring a smoother process.
Selecting Homz for your class B2 change of use project means partnering with a skilled and experienced team committed to transforming your ideas into a successful outcome. Our experts bring a wealth of knowledge and a deep understanding of the planning process, ensuring that every aspect of your project is handled with care and professionalism. To learn more about how we can support you, Contact Us today.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) for B2 Change of Use Projects
1. What is a B2 Change of Use Project?
A class B2 Change of Use project involves converting a property from one use class to another, specifically from storage and distribution (B8) to general industrial use (B2). This process may require planning permission depending on the specifics of the project, such as the impact on the local area, environmental considerations, and potential restrictions like conservation areas or Article 4 Directions.
2. Do I need planning permission for a B2 Change of Use?
In many cases, changing from class B8 to class B2 may require full planning permission. However, some properties may qualify under Permitted Development Rights (PDR), allowing certain types of use changes without the need for a full application. It’s essential to confirm whether your specific project qualifies for PDR or if planning permission is required. To explore this further, you can read our guide on Can I Change the Use of My Property Without Planning Permission?.
3. How do conservation areas or Article 4 Directions affect my B2 Change of Use application?
Properties located within conservation areas or subject to Article 4 Directions face stricter regulations, potentially preventing or restricting changes of use without planning permission. These protections are designed to preserve the character and appearance of specific areas. To understand how these might impact your project, check out our article on What is an Article 4 Direction, and How Could It Affect Your Change of Use Project?.
4. Why should I seek pre-application advice?
Getting pre-application advice is a smart way to enhance the success of your planning application. This process allows you to identify potential issues early on, giving you the opportunity to make any necessary changes before your formal submission. Before you dive into the planning process, pre-planning advice can be incredibly helpful. Seeking professional guidance early on, including feedback from visiting members or consultants, can save you time and money by highlighting potential challenges and providing a clearer path to approval. Learn more about the benefits in our article on Benefits of Seeking Pre-Application Advice for Change of Use Projects.
5. What architectural drawings do I need for a B2 Change of Use project?
Architectural drawings are crucial for detailing the existing and proposed layouts of the building, including any structural changes required for the class B2 conversion. These drawings must comply with local regulations and accurately reflect the changes being made to the property. It’s highly recommended to hire an architect to ensure these drawings meet the necessary standards. For more information, refer to our guide on Why Hiring an Architect Can Help with Planning Architectural Drawings for Change of Use Projects.
6. What are the challenges involved in a B2 Change of Use application?
Common challenges include ensuring compliance with environmental regulations, noise and air quality assessments, and potential opposition from neighbouring properties. Each class B2 conversion project has its own set of challenges, depending on the location and scope. A comprehensive planning application, backed by professional advice, can help mitigate these challenges. Check out our Common Pitfalls to Avoid in Change of Use Applications for more insights.
7. How long does the B2 Change of Use application process take?
The processing time for a class B2 Change of Use application can vary based on the project’s complexity and the local council’s workload. Typically, you can expect a decision within 8 to 13 weeks. However, seeking pre-application advice can help speed up the process by identifying potential issues early on. For a more specific timeline based on your particular situation, it’s advisable to consult with a planning expert. You can find more information here.
8. Can I apply for a B2 Change of Use if the property is in a residential area?
Applying for a class B2 Change of Use in a residential area is possible, but it can present additional challenges. Local authorities will typically assess the potential impact on nearby residential areas, considering factors such as noise, traffic, and pollution. To improve the likelihood of approval, it’s important to carefully address these concerns in your application. We can assist you in navigating these specific challenges and provide tailored guidance to help strengthen your submission.
9. What supporting documents do I need for a B2 Change of Use application?
Along with your architectural drawings, you may need to provide additional documents, such as environmental impact assessments, transport studies, and noise surveys. These documents help to ensure that your change of use will not negatively impact the local environment or community. Homz’s team can help you gather and organize all required documentation for a smooth application process.
10. What happens if my B2 Change of Use application is rejected?
If your application for a B2 Change of Use is rejected, you have the option to appeal the decision. The first step would be to consult with your planning consultant to understand the reasons behind the rejection. From there, we can work with you to address the concerns raised and potentially resubmit the application or adjust the plans accordingly. You can find more information here.
11. Can I change the use of a listed building to B2?
Changing the use of a listed building to B2 is generally more complex due to the extra protections in place to preserve historic properties. Planning authorities will closely evaluate the impact of the change on the building’s character and structure. You will likely need to provide detailed conservation reports and a sensitive design approach. At Homz, we have experience working on listed building projects and can offer expert guidance on these types of applications.
12. Will my B2 Change of Use application be impacted by the local community?
Yes, local community feedback can influence the outcome of your B2 Change of Use application. If there are objections from neighbours or local residents, the council will consider them in the decision-making process. It’s essential to anticipate potential objections and address them proactively in your application, especially for issues like traffic, noise, or environmental concerns.
13. How do I know if my B2 Change of Use project meets local zoning regulations?
Zoning regulations are crucial in determining whether your B2 Change of Use is permissible. These regulations specify which types of uses are allowed in specific areas, and deviations can require special permission or a change in zoning. Working with a local planning consultant can help you navigate these regulations and ensure that your project complies with local zoning laws.
